POLITICAL PARTY POLITICAL ISLAM IN INDONESIA MAP
( By : Asep W. M. Ag)
( By : Asep W. M. Ag)
preliminary
Islamic political party which is the object of this discussion is a political party that explicitly lists are usually of Islam . In the 1999 election , there are at least eight parties berasaskan Islam , among others, who get a seat in Parliament at the moment is the United Development Party ( PPP ) , the Crescent Star Party (PBB ) , Justice Party ( PK ) , Nahdlatul Ummah Party ( PNU ) , Ummah Awakening Party ( PKU ) , Masjumi Party , Party Syarikat Islam Indonesia ( PSII ) and others . Besides berasaskan Islamic party , in Indonesia at this time , there is also a mass party bebasiskan Islam , among others, the National Awakening Party and the National Mandate Party . Both of the latter is a mass party supporters mainly from the members and sympathizers of Islamic organizations and Muahammadiyah NU , Although not all members of these two organizations became members of the two parties .
Birth of Islam berasaskan party and Islamic mass -based party , since 1998 , ie after the fall of the New Order is an interesting development to be discussed . There are at least two things into consideration . First , in the past both in the Old Order and the New Order , there is no such distinction symptoms . In the Old Order berasaskan Islamic parties united to fight Islam Islam as the state ideology . During the New Order , namely that began in the 1971 election ( at that time there were 4 Islamic political party is a party of NU , PSII and Perti Parmusi ) , and the United Development Party for the next election until the 1997 election , showed no such distinction . Second , the political articulation of Islamic parties in the reform era , showed sharp differences , particularly about the nature of the party and ideological struggle in the Assembly . Berasaskan Islamic party that is more closed , especially in the party leadership than with mass-based party of Islam . Even though both Islamic mass -based party that claims to be open party , but it can not be denied that the voters of both parties are supporters and members of the traditional mass organizations Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama .
It is interesting to study further is how the Islamic parties in Indonesia's political role , and to what extent likely to win the next elections .
Islam and Politics
In Islamic literature has long recognized the political fiqh ( Fiqhis Siyasah ) , the underlying view that Shari'a besides set about divinity , the relationship between man and God ( religious issues ) as well as the character , but also include the individual's relationship with the Daulah ( State and government ) , or the relationship with the leader of the people , the relationship with the accused judges , official relations with the population , which is set in fiqh daulah ( Al - Qardhawy : 1999:23 ) . Politics according to the Shari'ah perspective , is what makes the shari'ah as a starting base , and leaned her back , applying earth , stick - horse teachings and principles of human middle , as well as its goals and objectives , and the road system . The goal is based on the Shari'ah and the system adopted also by the shari'ah . Islam is the Aqeedah and Shari'ah , religion and daulah , truth and strength , worship and leadership , Manuscripts and war . . ( Al - Qardhawy , 1999:35 ) . In the modern literature of these fields are included in the field of state and public policy , and the law is entered in the field of public law , constitutional law , namely , the State administration , criminal law and procedural law .
There have been many previous jurists discuss this issue , which is included in the discussion of fiqh in general , and some even peel the books of its own , such as Al - Ahkam As- Sulthaniyah , written by Al - Mawardy Syafi'y Ash ( d. 450 H ) , Abul Ya'la Al - Farra ' al - Hanbali ( d. 458 AH) , Ghayyatsul - Umam , written by Al Imam Al Haramain Ash Syafi'y ( d. 476 H ) . Book of As- Siyasah ash- fi Ishlahir Syar'iyah Ra'yu Ra'iyyah war essay Ibn Taymiyyah ( d. 728 H ) , as well as essays from students and friends that Ibn Qayyim Ibn Taymiyah who authored the book of Ath - Thuruq Al - Hukmiyah . Includes classic book Al - Kharaj authored by Abu Yusuf ( d. 181 H ) , one of the companions of Imam Abu Hanifa , and many other books including those written in the early 20th century .
The views and opinions of the jurists and scholars of classical politics is the same as what is raised by Al - Qardhawy , ( Al - Qardhawy 1999:38 ) that is not the separation of politics with Islamic Shari'ah . Politics is part of the Islamic shari'ah is governed by shari'ah and the goal for the establishment of the Shari'ah . Politics in the view of the scholars of the Salaf , interpreted in two meanings , namely , first , in a general meaning , which is to deal with human affairs and the problems of their lives based on Shari'ah religious world . Second , the special meaning that political opinions expressed leaders , laws and regulations issued to counteract the damage that will occur , to overcome the damage that has occurred or to solve specific problems . Politics must be based on the fiqh Islamy , which is derived from any existing schools of fiqh as well as the practice of the Companions and tabi'in . In the implementation of Islamic fiqh that interacts with the realities of life, and to do to solve the problems by referring to the shari'ah . Shari'ah does not ignore the realities of life , by the reality because they are also a tool to solve problems that arise .
Many examples and guidance given the Prophet Muhammad , about the malleability of Islamic Shari'ah is confronted with reality , and this is politics , which is among other things a while the Prophet never ordered to imprison a suspect , while on the other side of the Prophet SAW said would not judge a person unless dengn two witnesses . So is the attitude of the Prophet Muhammad that mitigates punishment for thieves are replaced by the law of blows , because of the condition of life of the thief . As well as taking alms and return a portion to them as lightening . Khalifar Umar also been suspended for thieves because of poverty law .
After the collapse of the Khilafah Islamiyah started growing dissent among the Ummah of Islam and political Islam . Especially begins with a view of the scholars of Al - Azhar , Ali Abd al-Raziq , the writings of Islam wa Ushulil Hukmi ( 1925 ) , which essentially states that Islam is a religion that does not have the Daulah , the State . Islam is merely a spiritual treatise . Muhammad is not intended to establish the State and this does not include his treatise . He is just a messenger in charge of carrying out religious propaganda is pure unmixed tendency toward establishing state authority and appeal , because he does not possess the power memamng and government . He is not a king nor a founder daulah and not invite the establishment of the State . ( Al - Qardhawy , 1999:29 ) . Ali Abd al-Raziq 's view is opposed by all scholars of Al -Azhar and the decision of the meeting of the Al- Azhar Saikh format along with 24 permanent members , and decided that the Abd al-Raziq al book contains a variety of issues that have been at odds with religion . The author is considered to have a path that is not worth doing at all a Muslim , especially one that is knowledgeable . Dikelaurkan author of Al-Azhar scholars and expertise revoked and removed from office .
More moderate view conveyed by Haikal ( Musda Majesty 1997:289-290 ) , that in the Qur "an and Sunnah can not be found directly rules and details of the problems that there is only a set of ethics that can be used tatanilai guidelines for regulating human behavior and life and relationships with others who are also adequate to be used as the basis for setting the state adversely . Qur'anic guidance regarding statehood does not designate a particular model . Therefore concluded that the matter of the State Haikal and more government submitted to Ummal Islamic ijtihad . Islam only outlines the basic principles that must be followed in managing the State . These principles refer to the basic principles of Islam for living bernasyarakat management , namely the principles of brotherhood , equality and freedom .
The difference between Muslims view the relationship between Islam and politics are evolving until the present time , and led to political affiliation professed Muslims around the world , including in Indonesia .
political party
A political party is an organized group of people who are stable with the aim to seize or retain control of the government for the leadership of his party and the mastery beradasarkan provide benefits to members of his party who are idiil and material ( Miriam Budiardjo , 1991:161 ) . He is articulate organization consisting of political actors that are active in the community , that they are focused on the control of governmental power and who compete for popular support with other groups who have different views . Thus political parties are intermediaries that connect the power - strength and idilogi - social ideology with government agencies that relate to the official and political action within the wider political community . ( Haryanto 1982:86 ) .
Deliberately established political parties to gain power and govern or influence government policy . Political party is a legitimate tool posed in modern society to categorize various groups and interests in society for the policies articulated in the State . A political party is a tool for people who are members of a group that has organized manner idilogis foundation and the same ideals of a society and a country that aspired . Thus political party is a formal means for their community groups to channel the aspirations and political views about life and society that aspired State .
Establishment of Parta political ideology based on similarity , to develop their vision and mission and solve the problems of the nation and the State . Because it is seen from the vision , mission and ideology called party then there is no conservative party and the liberal party . On the other hand there is the party that is based on religion and there are based on socialism , democracy and so forth . In reality there is always only one political party that adheres to the same basic ideology and within a country . Because although embracing basic principles and the same vision and mission can be born some political parties . Because the formation of political parties is also strongly influenced by the views and more personal willingness of the leaders or leaders of political parties , it is usually the case of small differences in the leadership styles of leaders of political parties concerned .
According Klingermann ( Klingermann 1994:432 ) , in Germany , the Netherlands , Belgium and Austria the dominant opposition parties continue to be more modern than the traditional patterned . In this case , the group of four countries expressed as a Christian party retains a prominent role to date . The debate that comes up in these countries is towards morality and family welfare state .
Political parties have a variety of functions , among others, presented by Miriam Budiardjo ( 1991:163 ) as follows :
party as a means of political communication ;
1 . party as a means of articulation and aggregation of interests ;
2 . party as a means of political socialization ;
3 . party as a means of political recruitment ;
4 . party's policy-making facilities , and
5 . party as a means of regulating conflict .
Noting the various functions of political parties , and the seats on the role of political parties is very important for a democratic country , both in the preparation of democratic policies and as an effective tool for political socialization ( policy ) , as well as a means of regulating the recruitment of political conflict , though not all this function can be played by political parties , because political parties own internal conflicts could occur and not be able to carry out political socialization and communication with both . It really depends on the quality and political consciousness of the leaders of the party moving .
In modern democratic theory , according to Klingemann ( Klingemann , 1994:392 ) , political parties are seen as the main institutional means to bridge between the community and government relations . The parties considered to play a role thoroughly before , during and after elections . In contrast to the interest groups , political parties reach a wider sphere of human interest . They identify , sort determines and directs the various interests towards acting in ways that can be chosen by the voters and government . Election policies will deliver an event presented by the party leaders in the context of the competition to compete for government .
Ideally, the winning party will control the decision-making of government policy in accordance with the party's programs . However, according to according to Klingermann ( Klingermann 1994:393 ) The ruling party should also pay attention to a variety of real tuntutatan in society . Because the loser party must not lose its role in modern political life , because it was the determination of public policy is strongly influenced by the chain of democratic process in the decision-making process . Pressures delivered by the functional groups and smaller parties are very big influence in the determination of public policy . Especially if there is no clear winner in the election process so that decisions prioritizing accommodation rather than confrontation .
Political parties in Indonesia
System multi-party elections in 1955 , appears once pengelompokon ideological parties that nothing can be grouped in two major groups namely the secular nationalists and Islamic nationalists . This can be seen in the parting view of the state among political parties in the Constituent Assembly . In the secular nationalist groups are incorporated in the Nationalist Indonesian National Party which has enormous strength as a result of the 1955 elections , the Communist group incorporated in the Indonesian Communist Party , the non - Muslim religious groups are the Catholic Party and Parkindo as well as other groups of functional groups as well as regional . While the Islamic circles , there Masjumi Party had the support of the Muslim modernists , Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) of the traditional Islamic and Party Syarikat Islam .
Throughout the New Order of the Communist Party was dissolved and understanding the Communists destroyed in Indonesia , so the communist political force in Indonesian politics until now virtually non-existent . Thus , only two political parties which last the power of political parties ie Muslims and Nationalist groups . Throughout the New Order government , political parties and rationalization carried only two political parties , namely the United Development Party and the Indonesian Democratic Party and Golkar . Because Golkar is a political vehicle the New Order government backed by the military and bureaucracy , the elections during the New Order does not show the real power flows politics. At this time armed forces emerge as a political force is crucial in determining the policies of the State .
Election 1999 , still shows the same tendency as the political stream in the 1955 election . As said by Paige Johnson ( Indonesian Parliament manual 2001:142 ) , there is continuity of nature flows from the previous period . Party supporters have a say in public policy . Muslim modernists tend to favor certain types of political parties , Muslim traditionalists on the other side and the nationalist Muslim abangan ( more secular ) and minority support other parties . This opinion contains the truth because in fact see the composition of the vote in the last election in 1999 although there was a slight shift , due to the political power of the New Order is very strong .
Islamic Political Parties in Indonesia
Throughout its history after independence on August 17, 1945 , Indonesia has carried out 8 times elections . From all these elections were never followed up by Islamic parties .
The first elections were held on 29 September 1955 during the reign of the cabinet of Prime Minister Burhanuddin Harahap ( Masjumi ) , followed by 118 participants from the organization of political parties , civic organizations and individuals . Competing for 257 parliamentary seats and 514 Assembly seats . The election of all participants are 5 Islamic party , namely the Muslim Council of Indonesian Suro ( Masjumi ) , Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) , Party Syarikat Islam Indonesia ( PSII ) , Tharekat Islamic Party of Indonesia ( PTII ) , Unity Tarbiyah Islamiyah ( like ) .
The results of the 1955 election , Islamic parties gained good results , although still less sound than the secular nationalist parties . Masjumi and PNI won parliament elections by gaining 57 seats respectively , while in the Constituent Masjumi gained 112 seats and 119 seats PNI gain . The next sequence is occupied by NU with 45 seats in the House and 91 seats in Kontituante , PKI 39 House seats and 80 seats Kontitunate , PSII gained 8 House seats and 16 Assembly seats . Total seats ynag obtained Islam parties in the House is 116 seats of the 257 House seats up for grabs , or by 45.13 % . While gaining 230 seats in the Constituent Assembly of 514 seats contested in the election constituency or by 44.74 % .
The most salient political issues brought by Islamic parties election results in 1955 and they have the same suaru for it , is a matter of ideology that is Islam as the state , dealing with other groups who want the Pancasila as the basic economic and social state . It happened because at the time it was being debated on the Indonesian Constitution in the Constituent Assembly . But the debate about the basic state does not produce results because of the power of Islam and the Nationalists have a balanced force so as not to reach number 2/3 required ( see Table 1 ) :
Three ideological faction in the Constituent Assembly ( Nasution 2001: 32-33 )
Factions Name Number of Seats
I. block Pancasila
1 . PNI ( Indonesian National Party ) 119
2 . PKI ( Indonesian Communist Party ) 60
3 . 20 Proclamation of the Republic
4 . Parkindo ( Indonesian Christian Party ) 16
5 . Catholic Party 10
6 . PSI ( Indonesian Socialist Party ) 10
7 . IPKI ( Indonesian Independence Supporters Association ) 8
8 . PRN ( National People's Party ) 3
9 . P3RI ( Police Employee Association of the Republic of Indonesia ) 3
10.Partai Unity Power 3
11.GPPS ( Defenders Movement Pancasila ) 2
12.Pri ( People's Party Indonesia ) 2
13.Baperki 2
14 . PRIM ( Party of the Republic of Indonesia Merdeka ) 2
15 . PIR ( Association of Indonesia Raya - Wongsonegoro ) 2
16.PIR ( Partai Indonesia Raya - Hazarin ) 2
17.Gerinda 2
18.PRD ( Village People's Party ) 1
19.R.Soedjono Prawirasoedarso 1
Bull 20.Gerakan Republic of Indonesia 1
Indonesian Farmers 21.Partai 1
22.Raja Kaprabonan 1
23.PIR ( West Nusa Tenggara - Lombok ) 1
24 . Permai 1
Number 274
II . blocks of Islam
1 . Masjumi ( Indonesian Muslim Shura Council ) 112
2 . NU ( Nahdlatul Ulama ) 91
3 . PSII ( SI Party of Indonesia ) 16
4 . Perti ( Unity Tarbiyah Islamiyah ) 7
5 . ADMIT - Madura 1
6 . PPTI 1
7 . Movement Sunda option 1
8 . Center Drive candidacy L.E.Idrus Effendi
Southeast Sulawesi 1
Number 230
III . Socioeconomic block
1 . Labor Party 5
2 . Murba Party 4
3 . Acoma 1
Number 10
At that time the entire Islamic party politic view that Islam and politics are inseparable and are part of the law , it is apparent in Mukaddimah draft Constitution prepared by the Islamic group that reads " .. So to maintain that independence , our nation appears logical resolved to compose the Republic Indonesia became a sovereign state based on Islam " . The thoughts and considerations chose Islam as the state can be seen in the speeches of the leaders of the Islamic faction at that time , which basically believes that in addition to regulating Islamic Aqeedah issues , worship and morals also govern the relationship of individuals and communities as well as state , in addition to democratic grounds where the largest part of Indonesian society is Muslim.
The second election was held on July 3, 1971 , in the early days of the New Order . The second election was followed by ten political parties of which there are four Islamic parties gained 10 seats PSII , NU 58 chairs , 26 chairs and Parmusi Islamic Party Perti got 2 seats . The total number of seats of Islamic parties is 96 seats of the 362 House seats up for grabs , or by 26.5 % . Since the 1977 elections until 1997 that occurred during the 20 years of political rationalization by the New Order government that there are only three political parties namely the United Development Party as an Islamic party , Golkar and the Indonesian Democratic Party . Islamic Party fade with the vote continues to decline , namely the 1977 election by 27.5 % seats of the 360 seats in parliament , election 1982 , gaining 26.1 % of the 360 House seats , gaining 15.25 % 1987 election of 400 seats the contested 1992 election gaining 15 % of the 400 seats it contested the last election and that the election of the New Order in 1997 gained 16 % . ( see table 2 .
Table 2 : Acquisition Development Party Chair since 1977
Election Seats In Parliament Preolehan %
Contested seats
-------------------------------
1977 360 99 27.50
1982 360 94 26.10
1987 400 61 15.25
1992 400 62 15.50
1997 400 64 16:00
Elections during the New Order , Golkar held under the domination always gain seats above the 62 % to 75 % which is a political tool of the New Order government . Because the acquisition suaru Islamic party in this period is not indicative of the attitude of voters who actually conducted in an open and democratic elections . New Order which uses all the power of the Golkar political , and military bureaucracy to support and retain power . Golkar victory is fully supported by the power of the bureaucracy and the armed forces .
Islam In The Reform Party
The birth of the Reformation period was marked by the fall of the Suharto government in taggal May 21, 1998 , caused by the huge mass demonstrations demanding a change in all fields, including political freedom , freedom of the press and the eradication of corruption, collusion and nepotism . President BJ Habibie succeeded Suharto who at that time to tap this democracy with the widest is to open and press freedom as well as freeing the establishment of political parties are new . This new era dasmbut with great fanfare by the demands radical changes in politics .
President BJ Habibie policy that frees the founding of the party politicians , welcomed the birth of hundreds of new political party in Indonesia that is at least 181 political parties , which is followed by an accelerated election in June 1999 . In the first election the reform period , not all registered political parties can participate pemuli , because after verification by the Election Commission elections was only attended by 48 political parties . This election , the election is considered as the most demakratis dilasanakan by Indonesian nation throughout its history after the first election in 1955 . From all political parties contesting the elections there are at least 8 Islamic political party , as described in the earlier part of this paper .
The results of the 1999 election, reveals that the acquisition of Islamic political parties is very small compared with the vote a political party which is not based on Islam . United Development Party who has lived almost a century ¼ only get 58 seats in the House which is 12.6 % of the 462 contested seats . Star Party gained 13 seats or 2 % , of the Justice Party gained 7 seats or 1.5 % , Nahdlatul Ummah Party gained 5 seats or 1 % , as well as 3 other Islamic parties meperoleh their seats 1 seat , which Ummah Awakening Party , party party Masjumi Syarikat Islam and thus amounted to 3 seats or 0.64 % . ( See Table 3 )
Table 3 : Obtaining Islamic party chair In 1999 Election
Name of Party Chair acquired %
1 . United Development Party 58 12.6
2 . 13 2.0 Star Party
3 . Justice Party 7 1.5
4 . Nahdlatul Ummah Party 5 1.0
5 . Masjumi 1 0.2
6.Partai Rise of Ummah 1 0.2
7 . Party Syarikat Islam Indonesia 1 0.2
Total 86 18.6
Meanwhile , both Islamic mass -based party , a seat which is not so great , the National Awakening Party gained 51 seats , or 11 % , and the National Mandate Party gained 34 seats or 7.36% . So the total number of seats the two parties is 85 seats or 18.36 % . This amount by the seat of Islamic parties . While the total number of seats the party barbasis Islamic parties and Islamic mass is 171 seats , or 37 % .
The role and position of parliamentary election results in 1999, menemptai very strategic position for the future of Indonesia , because in this period and the strategic policies essential for the future of Indonesia in place , among others, in the presence of a very large change in the Constitution of the Republic Indonesia.
The interesting thing was observed that the views and position of Islamic parties and parties berbasikan Muslim masses in prdebatan different views about article 29 of the 1945 Constitution . Islamic Parties led by the Crescent Star Party and the United Development Party proposed the addition of seven words of the Jakarta Charter in article 29, paragraph 1 , which is on God with the obligation to carry out Islamic shari'ah adherents . On the other hand this proposal did not receive support from both the Muslim-based party in the Assembly . This is understandable because these two parties menklain itself as an open and inclusive party . Very different from the position konstiante debate in the 1955 election results , in which all Islamic parties fight for Islam as the basis of the State , both of which sit in the Assembly NU and Muhammadiyah as a member of the base Masjumi incredible . These developments indicate a significant change in the way politicians view the state of the relationship with the Islamic religion ( Islam ) .
On the other hand , when it comes to practical politics in terms of determination and leadership elections , Islamic parties and Islamic mass -based parties can come together and have the same view . It can be seen at the time of the election of President Abdurrahman Wahid in the 1999 General Session . It is also evident in the political process and decision -making regarding the determination of various public officials by the House , almost certain that the parties can come together and emiliki same view . These symptoms menjukkan pragamtis attitude Islamic politicians in parliament in politics .
Future of Islamic Political Parties in Indonesia
Taking into account the ratio of votes in the 1955 elections the Islamic party that is 45.13 % with the 1999 elections is 18.6 % , it can be concluded that the number of seats and electoral support to Islamic parties in the democratic elections in 1999 that lost the support is decreased by 26 , 53 % . Similarly, when compared to the seat of the Islamic parties in the 1955 elections was 45.13 % with a combination of Islamic parties and parties in the Muslim-based election in 1999 by 37 % , also had a significant decrease of around 8.13 % .
Where voice support for Islamic parties lost the 8.3 % ? It is believed that most of the incoming voice for Islam in the Golkar Party , The strong influence of bureaucracy that gives support to the Golkar Party in the last election in 1999 , in addition to many of the figures and the NU family Masjumi entering the Golkar Party as a political system that was developed by Order new very strong . This can be seen in the moderation of the Golkar politicians over demand and the views put forward by the Islamic parties or Muslim-based parties .
It is not easy for Islamic parties to re- occupy the position as it is generated by the 1955 election . Many of the changes and shifts that occur as a result of the New Order politics . Elections in 1999, still affected by the atmosphere of the fall of the New Order and the transition that still gives hope to the Islamic parties to gain a better suaru the next elections . However big victory in the 1999 elections PDIP ago is because of the strong pressure against the regime of Suharto and Megawati's PDIP , so got a very strong public sympathy . As said by Johnson Paid ( Free Indonesian Parliament 2001:144 ) , PDIP is highly personalistic party . Megawati has inherited his father's followers are very charismatic . The party supporters love Mega .
On the other hand , the victory of Golkar Party strongly associated with a very strong influence of the bureaucracy was previously a winning machine for the Golkar Party . This is apparent in the very large Golkar victory in regions outside Java .
Opportunities for Islamic parties is the shift in voter choice before choosing PDIP and Golkar Party , and of the voters . It can only be achieved by the ability of the internal consolidation of Islamic parties in order to organize , memobilasi , formulate and express the interests of the Islamic ummah better . Stream political jargon and ideology still worth voiced by Islamic parties in addition to offering programs better and to touch people's interests at large.
Register Kepustkaan
1 . Yusul Al - Qardhawy , Guidelines Stateless In Islamic Perspective , dar Translation Original Title : As- Siyasah ash- Syari'yah , by Kathur Suhadi , Pustaka Al Kauthar , Cet.I , Jakarta , 1999.
2 . Musda Mulia , an Islamic State - Political Thought Husayn Haykal , Doctoral Dissertation , Graduate Program Parca IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah , Jakarta , 1997.
3 . Klingemann , Hans - Dieter at.al. Party , Policy and Democracy , Translation of Original Title : Parties , Policies , and Democracy , by Sigit Jatmika , Library Student , Yogyakarta , 1999.
4 . Nasution, Adnan Buyung , Aspiration Constitutional Government in Indonesia , Cet.II , PT Pustaka Utama Grafiti , Jakarta , 2001.
5 . Basalim , Umar , Pros - Cons Jakarta Charter in the Era of Reform , The Library Indonesia , Jakarta 2001 .
6 . Foundation API , Free Indonesian Parliament , Cet.I , 2001.
7 . Budiardjo , Miriam , Fundamentals of Political Science , Scholastic , Jakarta , 1991
8 . Haryanto , Political Systems - An Introduction , Liberty , Yogyakarta , 1982.
Islamic political party which is the object of this discussion is a political party that explicitly lists are usually of Islam . In the 1999 election , there are at least eight parties berasaskan Islam , among others, who get a seat in Parliament at the moment is the United Development Party ( PPP ) , the Crescent Star Party (PBB ) , Justice Party ( PK ) , Nahdlatul Ummah Party ( PNU ) , Ummah Awakening Party ( PKU ) , Masjumi Party , Party Syarikat Islam Indonesia ( PSII ) and others . Besides berasaskan Islamic party , in Indonesia at this time , there is also a mass party bebasiskan Islam , among others, the National Awakening Party and the National Mandate Party . Both of the latter is a mass party supporters mainly from the members and sympathizers of Islamic organizations and Muahammadiyah NU , Although not all members of these two organizations became members of the two parties .
Birth of Islam berasaskan party and Islamic mass -based party , since 1998 , ie after the fall of the New Order is an interesting development to be discussed . There are at least two things into consideration . First , in the past both in the Old Order and the New Order , there is no such distinction symptoms . In the Old Order berasaskan Islamic parties united to fight Islam Islam as the state ideology . During the New Order , namely that began in the 1971 election ( at that time there were 4 Islamic political party is a party of NU , PSII and Perti Parmusi ) , and the United Development Party for the next election until the 1997 election , showed no such distinction . Second , the political articulation of Islamic parties in the reform era , showed sharp differences , particularly about the nature of the party and ideological struggle in the Assembly . Berasaskan Islamic party that is more closed , especially in the party leadership than with mass-based party of Islam . Even though both Islamic mass -based party that claims to be open party , but it can not be denied that the voters of both parties are supporters and members of the traditional mass organizations Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama .
It is interesting to study further is how the Islamic parties in Indonesia's political role , and to what extent likely to win the next elections .
Islam and Politics
In Islamic literature has long recognized the political fiqh ( Fiqhis Siyasah ) , the underlying view that Shari'a besides set about divinity , the relationship between man and God ( religious issues ) as well as the character , but also include the individual's relationship with the Daulah ( State and government ) , or the relationship with the leader of the people , the relationship with the accused judges , official relations with the population , which is set in fiqh daulah ( Al - Qardhawy : 1999:23 ) . Politics according to the Shari'ah perspective , is what makes the shari'ah as a starting base , and leaned her back , applying earth , stick - horse teachings and principles of human middle , as well as its goals and objectives , and the road system . The goal is based on the Shari'ah and the system adopted also by the shari'ah . Islam is the Aqeedah and Shari'ah , religion and daulah , truth and strength , worship and leadership , Manuscripts and war . . ( Al - Qardhawy , 1999:35 ) . In the modern literature of these fields are included in the field of state and public policy , and the law is entered in the field of public law , constitutional law , namely , the State administration , criminal law and procedural law .
There have been many previous jurists discuss this issue , which is included in the discussion of fiqh in general , and some even peel the books of its own , such as Al - Ahkam As- Sulthaniyah , written by Al - Mawardy Syafi'y Ash ( d. 450 H ) , Abul Ya'la Al - Farra ' al - Hanbali ( d. 458 AH) , Ghayyatsul - Umam , written by Al Imam Al Haramain Ash Syafi'y ( d. 476 H ) . Book of As- Siyasah ash- fi Ishlahir Syar'iyah Ra'yu Ra'iyyah war essay Ibn Taymiyyah ( d. 728 H ) , as well as essays from students and friends that Ibn Qayyim Ibn Taymiyah who authored the book of Ath - Thuruq Al - Hukmiyah . Includes classic book Al - Kharaj authored by Abu Yusuf ( d. 181 H ) , one of the companions of Imam Abu Hanifa , and many other books including those written in the early 20th century .
The views and opinions of the jurists and scholars of classical politics is the same as what is raised by Al - Qardhawy , ( Al - Qardhawy 1999:38 ) that is not the separation of politics with Islamic Shari'ah . Politics is part of the Islamic shari'ah is governed by shari'ah and the goal for the establishment of the Shari'ah . Politics in the view of the scholars of the Salaf , interpreted in two meanings , namely , first , in a general meaning , which is to deal with human affairs and the problems of their lives based on Shari'ah religious world . Second , the special meaning that political opinions expressed leaders , laws and regulations issued to counteract the damage that will occur , to overcome the damage that has occurred or to solve specific problems . Politics must be based on the fiqh Islamy , which is derived from any existing schools of fiqh as well as the practice of the Companions and tabi'in . In the implementation of Islamic fiqh that interacts with the realities of life, and to do to solve the problems by referring to the shari'ah . Shari'ah does not ignore the realities of life , by the reality because they are also a tool to solve problems that arise .
Many examples and guidance given the Prophet Muhammad , about the malleability of Islamic Shari'ah is confronted with reality , and this is politics , which is among other things a while the Prophet never ordered to imprison a suspect , while on the other side of the Prophet SAW said would not judge a person unless dengn two witnesses . So is the attitude of the Prophet Muhammad that mitigates punishment for thieves are replaced by the law of blows , because of the condition of life of the thief . As well as taking alms and return a portion to them as lightening . Khalifar Umar also been suspended for thieves because of poverty law .
After the collapse of the Khilafah Islamiyah started growing dissent among the Ummah of Islam and political Islam . Especially begins with a view of the scholars of Al - Azhar , Ali Abd al-Raziq , the writings of Islam wa Ushulil Hukmi ( 1925 ) , which essentially states that Islam is a religion that does not have the Daulah , the State . Islam is merely a spiritual treatise . Muhammad is not intended to establish the State and this does not include his treatise . He is just a messenger in charge of carrying out religious propaganda is pure unmixed tendency toward establishing state authority and appeal , because he does not possess the power memamng and government . He is not a king nor a founder daulah and not invite the establishment of the State . ( Al - Qardhawy , 1999:29 ) . Ali Abd al-Raziq 's view is opposed by all scholars of Al -Azhar and the decision of the meeting of the Al- Azhar Saikh format along with 24 permanent members , and decided that the Abd al-Raziq al book contains a variety of issues that have been at odds with religion . The author is considered to have a path that is not worth doing at all a Muslim , especially one that is knowledgeable . Dikelaurkan author of Al-Azhar scholars and expertise revoked and removed from office .
More moderate view conveyed by Haikal ( Musda Majesty 1997:289-290 ) , that in the Qur "an and Sunnah can not be found directly rules and details of the problems that there is only a set of ethics that can be used tatanilai guidelines for regulating human behavior and life and relationships with others who are also adequate to be used as the basis for setting the state adversely . Qur'anic guidance regarding statehood does not designate a particular model . Therefore concluded that the matter of the State Haikal and more government submitted to Ummal Islamic ijtihad . Islam only outlines the basic principles that must be followed in managing the State . These principles refer to the basic principles of Islam for living bernasyarakat management , namely the principles of brotherhood , equality and freedom .
The difference between Muslims view the relationship between Islam and politics are evolving until the present time , and led to political affiliation professed Muslims around the world , including in Indonesia .
political party
A political party is an organized group of people who are stable with the aim to seize or retain control of the government for the leadership of his party and the mastery beradasarkan provide benefits to members of his party who are idiil and material ( Miriam Budiardjo , 1991:161 ) . He is articulate organization consisting of political actors that are active in the community , that they are focused on the control of governmental power and who compete for popular support with other groups who have different views . Thus political parties are intermediaries that connect the power - strength and idilogi - social ideology with government agencies that relate to the official and political action within the wider political community . ( Haryanto 1982:86 ) .
Deliberately established political parties to gain power and govern or influence government policy . Political party is a legitimate tool posed in modern society to categorize various groups and interests in society for the policies articulated in the State . A political party is a tool for people who are members of a group that has organized manner idilogis foundation and the same ideals of a society and a country that aspired . Thus political party is a formal means for their community groups to channel the aspirations and political views about life and society that aspired State .
Establishment of Parta political ideology based on similarity , to develop their vision and mission and solve the problems of the nation and the State . Because it is seen from the vision , mission and ideology called party then there is no conservative party and the liberal party . On the other hand there is the party that is based on religion and there are based on socialism , democracy and so forth . In reality there is always only one political party that adheres to the same basic ideology and within a country . Because although embracing basic principles and the same vision and mission can be born some political parties . Because the formation of political parties is also strongly influenced by the views and more personal willingness of the leaders or leaders of political parties , it is usually the case of small differences in the leadership styles of leaders of political parties concerned .
According Klingermann ( Klingermann 1994:432 ) , in Germany , the Netherlands , Belgium and Austria the dominant opposition parties continue to be more modern than the traditional patterned . In this case , the group of four countries expressed as a Christian party retains a prominent role to date . The debate that comes up in these countries is towards morality and family welfare state .
Political parties have a variety of functions , among others, presented by Miriam Budiardjo ( 1991:163 ) as follows :
party as a means of political communication ;
1 . party as a means of articulation and aggregation of interests ;
2 . party as a means of political socialization ;
3 . party as a means of political recruitment ;
4 . party's policy-making facilities , and
5 . party as a means of regulating conflict .
Noting the various functions of political parties , and the seats on the role of political parties is very important for a democratic country , both in the preparation of democratic policies and as an effective tool for political socialization ( policy ) , as well as a means of regulating the recruitment of political conflict , though not all this function can be played by political parties , because political parties own internal conflicts could occur and not be able to carry out political socialization and communication with both . It really depends on the quality and political consciousness of the leaders of the party moving .
In modern democratic theory , according to Klingemann ( Klingemann , 1994:392 ) , political parties are seen as the main institutional means to bridge between the community and government relations . The parties considered to play a role thoroughly before , during and after elections . In contrast to the interest groups , political parties reach a wider sphere of human interest . They identify , sort determines and directs the various interests towards acting in ways that can be chosen by the voters and government . Election policies will deliver an event presented by the party leaders in the context of the competition to compete for government .
Ideally, the winning party will control the decision-making of government policy in accordance with the party's programs . However, according to according to Klingermann ( Klingermann 1994:393 ) The ruling party should also pay attention to a variety of real tuntutatan in society . Because the loser party must not lose its role in modern political life , because it was the determination of public policy is strongly influenced by the chain of democratic process in the decision-making process . Pressures delivered by the functional groups and smaller parties are very big influence in the determination of public policy . Especially if there is no clear winner in the election process so that decisions prioritizing accommodation rather than confrontation .
Political parties in Indonesia
System multi-party elections in 1955 , appears once pengelompokon ideological parties that nothing can be grouped in two major groups namely the secular nationalists and Islamic nationalists . This can be seen in the parting view of the state among political parties in the Constituent Assembly . In the secular nationalist groups are incorporated in the Nationalist Indonesian National Party which has enormous strength as a result of the 1955 elections , the Communist group incorporated in the Indonesian Communist Party , the non - Muslim religious groups are the Catholic Party and Parkindo as well as other groups of functional groups as well as regional . While the Islamic circles , there Masjumi Party had the support of the Muslim modernists , Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) of the traditional Islamic and Party Syarikat Islam .
Throughout the New Order of the Communist Party was dissolved and understanding the Communists destroyed in Indonesia , so the communist political force in Indonesian politics until now virtually non-existent . Thus , only two political parties which last the power of political parties ie Muslims and Nationalist groups . Throughout the New Order government , political parties and rationalization carried only two political parties , namely the United Development Party and the Indonesian Democratic Party and Golkar . Because Golkar is a political vehicle the New Order government backed by the military and bureaucracy , the elections during the New Order does not show the real power flows politics. At this time armed forces emerge as a political force is crucial in determining the policies of the State .
Election 1999 , still shows the same tendency as the political stream in the 1955 election . As said by Paige Johnson ( Indonesian Parliament manual 2001:142 ) , there is continuity of nature flows from the previous period . Party supporters have a say in public policy . Muslim modernists tend to favor certain types of political parties , Muslim traditionalists on the other side and the nationalist Muslim abangan ( more secular ) and minority support other parties . This opinion contains the truth because in fact see the composition of the vote in the last election in 1999 although there was a slight shift , due to the political power of the New Order is very strong .
Islamic Political Parties in Indonesia
Throughout its history after independence on August 17, 1945 , Indonesia has carried out 8 times elections . From all these elections were never followed up by Islamic parties .
The first elections were held on 29 September 1955 during the reign of the cabinet of Prime Minister Burhanuddin Harahap ( Masjumi ) , followed by 118 participants from the organization of political parties , civic organizations and individuals . Competing for 257 parliamentary seats and 514 Assembly seats . The election of all participants are 5 Islamic party , namely the Muslim Council of Indonesian Suro ( Masjumi ) , Nahdlatul Ulama ( NU ) , Party Syarikat Islam Indonesia ( PSII ) , Tharekat Islamic Party of Indonesia ( PTII ) , Unity Tarbiyah Islamiyah ( like ) .
The results of the 1955 election , Islamic parties gained good results , although still less sound than the secular nationalist parties . Masjumi and PNI won parliament elections by gaining 57 seats respectively , while in the Constituent Masjumi gained 112 seats and 119 seats PNI gain . The next sequence is occupied by NU with 45 seats in the House and 91 seats in Kontituante , PKI 39 House seats and 80 seats Kontitunate , PSII gained 8 House seats and 16 Assembly seats . Total seats ynag obtained Islam parties in the House is 116 seats of the 257 House seats up for grabs , or by 45.13 % . While gaining 230 seats in the Constituent Assembly of 514 seats contested in the election constituency or by 44.74 % .
The most salient political issues brought by Islamic parties election results in 1955 and they have the same suaru for it , is a matter of ideology that is Islam as the state , dealing with other groups who want the Pancasila as the basic economic and social state . It happened because at the time it was being debated on the Indonesian Constitution in the Constituent Assembly . But the debate about the basic state does not produce results because of the power of Islam and the Nationalists have a balanced force so as not to reach number 2/3 required ( see Table 1 ) :
Three ideological faction in the Constituent Assembly ( Nasution 2001: 32-33 )
Factions Name Number of Seats
I. block Pancasila
1 . PNI ( Indonesian National Party ) 119
2 . PKI ( Indonesian Communist Party ) 60
3 . 20 Proclamation of the Republic
4 . Parkindo ( Indonesian Christian Party ) 16
5 . Catholic Party 10
6 . PSI ( Indonesian Socialist Party ) 10
7 . IPKI ( Indonesian Independence Supporters Association ) 8
8 . PRN ( National People's Party ) 3
9 . P3RI ( Police Employee Association of the Republic of Indonesia ) 3
10.Partai Unity Power 3
11.GPPS ( Defenders Movement Pancasila ) 2
12.Pri ( People's Party Indonesia ) 2
13.Baperki 2
14 . PRIM ( Party of the Republic of Indonesia Merdeka ) 2
15 . PIR ( Association of Indonesia Raya - Wongsonegoro ) 2
16.PIR ( Partai Indonesia Raya - Hazarin ) 2
17.Gerinda 2
18.PRD ( Village People's Party ) 1
19.R.Soedjono Prawirasoedarso 1
Bull 20.Gerakan Republic of Indonesia 1
Indonesian Farmers 21.Partai 1
22.Raja Kaprabonan 1
23.PIR ( West Nusa Tenggara - Lombok ) 1
24 . Permai 1
Number 274
II . blocks of Islam
1 . Masjumi ( Indonesian Muslim Shura Council ) 112
2 . NU ( Nahdlatul Ulama ) 91
3 . PSII ( SI Party of Indonesia ) 16
4 . Perti ( Unity Tarbiyah Islamiyah ) 7
5 . ADMIT - Madura 1
6 . PPTI 1
7 . Movement Sunda option 1
8 . Center Drive candidacy L.E.Idrus Effendi
Southeast Sulawesi 1
Number 230
III . Socioeconomic block
1 . Labor Party 5
2 . Murba Party 4
3 . Acoma 1
Number 10
At that time the entire Islamic party politic view that Islam and politics are inseparable and are part of the law , it is apparent in Mukaddimah draft Constitution prepared by the Islamic group that reads " .. So to maintain that independence , our nation appears logical resolved to compose the Republic Indonesia became a sovereign state based on Islam " . The thoughts and considerations chose Islam as the state can be seen in the speeches of the leaders of the Islamic faction at that time , which basically believes that in addition to regulating Islamic Aqeedah issues , worship and morals also govern the relationship of individuals and communities as well as state , in addition to democratic grounds where the largest part of Indonesian society is Muslim.
The second election was held on July 3, 1971 , in the early days of the New Order . The second election was followed by ten political parties of which there are four Islamic parties gained 10 seats PSII , NU 58 chairs , 26 chairs and Parmusi Islamic Party Perti got 2 seats . The total number of seats of Islamic parties is 96 seats of the 362 House seats up for grabs , or by 26.5 % . Since the 1977 elections until 1997 that occurred during the 20 years of political rationalization by the New Order government that there are only three political parties namely the United Development Party as an Islamic party , Golkar and the Indonesian Democratic Party . Islamic Party fade with the vote continues to decline , namely the 1977 election by 27.5 % seats of the 360 seats in parliament , election 1982 , gaining 26.1 % of the 360 House seats , gaining 15.25 % 1987 election of 400 seats the contested 1992 election gaining 15 % of the 400 seats it contested the last election and that the election of the New Order in 1997 gained 16 % . ( see table 2 .
Table 2 : Acquisition Development Party Chair since 1977
Election Seats In Parliament Preolehan %
Contested seats
-------------------------------
1977 360 99 27.50
1982 360 94 26.10
1987 400 61 15.25
1992 400 62 15.50
1997 400 64 16:00
Elections during the New Order , Golkar held under the domination always gain seats above the 62 % to 75 % which is a political tool of the New Order government . Because the acquisition suaru Islamic party in this period is not indicative of the attitude of voters who actually conducted in an open and democratic elections . New Order which uses all the power of the Golkar political , and military bureaucracy to support and retain power . Golkar victory is fully supported by the power of the bureaucracy and the armed forces .
Islam In The Reform Party
The birth of the Reformation period was marked by the fall of the Suharto government in taggal May 21, 1998 , caused by the huge mass demonstrations demanding a change in all fields, including political freedom , freedom of the press and the eradication of corruption, collusion and nepotism . President BJ Habibie succeeded Suharto who at that time to tap this democracy with the widest is to open and press freedom as well as freeing the establishment of political parties are new . This new era dasmbut with great fanfare by the demands radical changes in politics .
President BJ Habibie policy that frees the founding of the party politicians , welcomed the birth of hundreds of new political party in Indonesia that is at least 181 political parties , which is followed by an accelerated election in June 1999 . In the first election the reform period , not all registered political parties can participate pemuli , because after verification by the Election Commission elections was only attended by 48 political parties . This election , the election is considered as the most demakratis dilasanakan by Indonesian nation throughout its history after the first election in 1955 . From all political parties contesting the elections there are at least 8 Islamic political party , as described in the earlier part of this paper .
The results of the 1999 election, reveals that the acquisition of Islamic political parties is very small compared with the vote a political party which is not based on Islam . United Development Party who has lived almost a century ¼ only get 58 seats in the House which is 12.6 % of the 462 contested seats . Star Party gained 13 seats or 2 % , of the Justice Party gained 7 seats or 1.5 % , Nahdlatul Ummah Party gained 5 seats or 1 % , as well as 3 other Islamic parties meperoleh their seats 1 seat , which Ummah Awakening Party , party party Masjumi Syarikat Islam and thus amounted to 3 seats or 0.64 % . ( See Table 3 )
Table 3 : Obtaining Islamic party chair In 1999 Election
Name of Party Chair acquired %
1 . United Development Party 58 12.6
2 . 13 2.0 Star Party
3 . Justice Party 7 1.5
4 . Nahdlatul Ummah Party 5 1.0
5 . Masjumi 1 0.2
6.Partai Rise of Ummah 1 0.2
7 . Party Syarikat Islam Indonesia 1 0.2
Total 86 18.6
Meanwhile , both Islamic mass -based party , a seat which is not so great , the National Awakening Party gained 51 seats , or 11 % , and the National Mandate Party gained 34 seats or 7.36% . So the total number of seats the two parties is 85 seats or 18.36 % . This amount by the seat of Islamic parties . While the total number of seats the party barbasis Islamic parties and Islamic mass is 171 seats , or 37 % .
The role and position of parliamentary election results in 1999, menemptai very strategic position for the future of Indonesia , because in this period and the strategic policies essential for the future of Indonesia in place , among others, in the presence of a very large change in the Constitution of the Republic Indonesia.
The interesting thing was observed that the views and position of Islamic parties and parties berbasikan Muslim masses in prdebatan different views about article 29 of the 1945 Constitution . Islamic Parties led by the Crescent Star Party and the United Development Party proposed the addition of seven words of the Jakarta Charter in article 29, paragraph 1 , which is on God with the obligation to carry out Islamic shari'ah adherents . On the other hand this proposal did not receive support from both the Muslim-based party in the Assembly . This is understandable because these two parties menklain itself as an open and inclusive party . Very different from the position konstiante debate in the 1955 election results , in which all Islamic parties fight for Islam as the basis of the State , both of which sit in the Assembly NU and Muhammadiyah as a member of the base Masjumi incredible . These developments indicate a significant change in the way politicians view the state of the relationship with the Islamic religion ( Islam ) .
On the other hand , when it comes to practical politics in terms of determination and leadership elections , Islamic parties and Islamic mass -based parties can come together and have the same view . It can be seen at the time of the election of President Abdurrahman Wahid in the 1999 General Session . It is also evident in the political process and decision -making regarding the determination of various public officials by the House , almost certain that the parties can come together and emiliki same view . These symptoms menjukkan pragamtis attitude Islamic politicians in parliament in politics .
Future of Islamic Political Parties in Indonesia
Taking into account the ratio of votes in the 1955 elections the Islamic party that is 45.13 % with the 1999 elections is 18.6 % , it can be concluded that the number of seats and electoral support to Islamic parties in the democratic elections in 1999 that lost the support is decreased by 26 , 53 % . Similarly, when compared to the seat of the Islamic parties in the 1955 elections was 45.13 % with a combination of Islamic parties and parties in the Muslim-based election in 1999 by 37 % , also had a significant decrease of around 8.13 % .
Where voice support for Islamic parties lost the 8.3 % ? It is believed that most of the incoming voice for Islam in the Golkar Party , The strong influence of bureaucracy that gives support to the Golkar Party in the last election in 1999 , in addition to many of the figures and the NU family Masjumi entering the Golkar Party as a political system that was developed by Order new very strong . This can be seen in the moderation of the Golkar politicians over demand and the views put forward by the Islamic parties or Muslim-based parties .
It is not easy for Islamic parties to re- occupy the position as it is generated by the 1955 election . Many of the changes and shifts that occur as a result of the New Order politics . Elections in 1999, still affected by the atmosphere of the fall of the New Order and the transition that still gives hope to the Islamic parties to gain a better suaru the next elections . However big victory in the 1999 elections PDIP ago is because of the strong pressure against the regime of Suharto and Megawati's PDIP , so got a very strong public sympathy . As said by Johnson Paid ( Free Indonesian Parliament 2001:144 ) , PDIP is highly personalistic party . Megawati has inherited his father's followers are very charismatic . The party supporters love Mega .
On the other hand , the victory of Golkar Party strongly associated with a very strong influence of the bureaucracy was previously a winning machine for the Golkar Party . This is apparent in the very large Golkar victory in regions outside Java .
Opportunities for Islamic parties is the shift in voter choice before choosing PDIP and Golkar Party , and of the voters . It can only be achieved by the ability of the internal consolidation of Islamic parties in order to organize , memobilasi , formulate and express the interests of the Islamic ummah better . Stream political jargon and ideology still worth voiced by Islamic parties in addition to offering programs better and to touch people's interests at large.
Register Kepustkaan
1 . Yusul Al - Qardhawy , Guidelines Stateless In Islamic Perspective , dar Translation Original Title : As- Siyasah ash- Syari'yah , by Kathur Suhadi , Pustaka Al Kauthar , Cet.I , Jakarta , 1999.
2 . Musda Mulia , an Islamic State - Political Thought Husayn Haykal , Doctoral Dissertation , Graduate Program Parca IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah , Jakarta , 1997.
3 . Klingemann , Hans - Dieter at.al. Party , Policy and Democracy , Translation of Original Title : Parties , Policies , and Democracy , by Sigit Jatmika , Library Student , Yogyakarta , 1999.
4 . Nasution, Adnan Buyung , Aspiration Constitutional Government in Indonesia , Cet.II , PT Pustaka Utama Grafiti , Jakarta , 2001.
5 . Basalim , Umar , Pros - Cons Jakarta Charter in the Era of Reform , The Library Indonesia , Jakarta 2001 .
6 . Foundation API , Free Indonesian Parliament , Cet.I , 2001.
7 . Budiardjo , Miriam , Fundamentals of Political Science , Scholastic , Jakarta , 1991
8 . Haryanto , Political Systems - An Introduction , Liberty , Yogyakarta , 1982.
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